from the notebook...
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Mechanism & Its Alternatives –
original paper by C D Broad
Essence of pure mechanism :
1. Single kind of stuff, particles are all alike.
2. single change – change of position.
3. single elementary causal law according to which particles influence and interact with one another.
4. simple principle of composition – any aggregate interacts with any other aggregate just like 2 particles would interact with other 2 particles.
Electronic Theory differs from this principle coz :
1. There are 2 types of particles, electrons and protons which behave differently
2. Laws of electromagnetism cannot be broken to a central force.
3. Gravitational force does not affect electrons (at least the effect cannot be determined at present) so mass behaves differently than a pair of electrons would. The +ve and –ve nature of charges adds another level of complexity.
Biologists hold that living bodies are composed of constituents which may or may not exist in non living bodies, and its characteristics behavior is totally deduced from its structure and components and from the chemical, physical and dynamic laws which these materials would obey if they were isolated or were in non living combinations.
External objects have other characteristics beside mass and electric charge (color, temp etc). Many changes beside change of position take place.
We divide external world into macro and microscopic scales then we assume macroscopic qualities which depend on microscopic events and objects which exist within the object and we hope that in their interaction with each other, they fulfil the conditions of Pure Mathematics.
If we deny that objects have sensible qualities – ie we assume that in reality they may be all alike and they only appear red to me and blue to you, thus fulfilling in reality the properties of pure mechanism. Since these are factors in cause appearance, in these transactions the laws that they obey cannot be mechanical.
Appearance of a plurality of irreducible sensible qualities forces us to distinguish between 2 kinds of laws – intraphyscial and transphysical.
Intraphysical Law : There is no positive reason to suppose that they’re of the kind required by pure mechanism. There is one ultimate intraphysical principle of composition for ultra physical transactions.
Transphysical Law : There must be at least as many irreduceable transphysical laws as there are irreducible determinable sense qualities.
Three ways of Accounting for Characteristics Difference of Behavior :
Alive bodies behave differently from those not alive. Chemical behavior is different from physical behavior of even the non living bodies.
Are differences between physical, chemical and vital behavior ultimate and irreducible or not ?
On visually observable (macroscopic) scale all matter behaves chemically from time to time,but only a few bits of matter exhibit vital behavior. These have similar selection of chemical substance, have external form and internal structure. They cease to show vital behavior and soon after lose their form and internal structure. We don’t know how to make non living into living and we cannot revive the dead, but we do know plants and humans take up on living and convert it to fuel which enables them to remain alive, regenerate and reproduce.
Substantial Vitalism – Special Compound Theory : “Entelechy” is an essential factor which occurs only in living bodies and explains the characteristic behavior.Not found in dead organic bodies and inorganic matter.
1. Presence or absence of entelechy is not sufficient or enough to explain vital behavior.In chemistry, structure of the complex is an essential factor.
2. Entelechy cannot be isolated and cannot exist apart from a living organism. In chemistry, elements like Ch3 and C6H5 canot exist in isolation but do play an important part in determining the characteristic of the compound.
3. Entelechy exerts a directive influence on matter that enters the organism from outside.
Why do we feel so confident about chemical elements ad doubtful about the existence of entelechies.
1. Chemical elements were recognized before they were isolated. Entelechies are at best suspected and theoritised versions, not observed, recognized or isolated. Maybe they cannot be perceived.
2. Chemical elements that cannot be isolated but do exist, is because of a well understood theory of valence. We can pass these elements from one compound to another. Etelechies canot be passed from living to a corpse.
3. Entelechies are not material and may not even occupy space. Thus they’re different.Its difficult to theorize that a living body is a compound of entelechies ad a material structure – the compund structrure it formed is difficult to explain.
Substance Vitalism thus provides unsatisfactory explanation.
Emergent Theories : Certain wholes A, B, C are in a relation R to each other and this combination has certain characteristicproperties. But A,B,C can occur in other complexes where relations are different and properties of R(a,B,C) cannot be deduced at all by studying individual properties of A,B,C or those of R1(A,B,C)
To explain the behavior of a whole in terms of its components we need to :
1. Know how individual parts behave separately.
2. Know laws according to which the behavior of separate parts is compounded.
H2 has some properties and it combines with O2, which has totally different properties. The resultant, H2O has properties which have nothing to do with properties of the constituents H2 and O2.
Composing a whole cannot be studied by studying individual components. It’s so obvious that two halves do not make a whole in nature, its purely a mathematical concept. To understand properties of Silver Chloride, it is necessary to study samples of that particular compound, not ANY general compound. The law which governs the combination of Ag and Cl is unique.
In mechanical systems, if the theory underlying the machie is known, and the property of its componets is known, the workings of a complex structure can be accurately predicted.
1. We do not know all properties of any element and there is always the probability of their manifesting unpredictable properties when put in a new situation.
2. Or we can limit the meaning of property by definition, to mean ‘physcial properties’ but then, we do not know the laws under which one element combines with another. All laws are unique and cannot be deduced by observing the behavior of the element in isolation.
Matter which behaves vitally is made of chemical compounds arranged in a certain characteristic way. Human body is a compound of second order – compound composed of compounds and its possible that the properties of second order compound may not be derived from properties of the first order constituents ? We have to recognize that we may be dealing with a unique and irreducible law.
1. It is possible that in a very special situation of the way chemical compounds are placed in a living body, it may exhibit properties that remain latent under all other conditions.
2. We know the properties of body constituents, but we do not kow the laws according to which these constituents would have shown in isolation – which is compounded when they actin proportions and arrangements.
The only way to study living bodies is to study living bodies. This is the emergent Vitalism View.
Mechanistic Theories : If it were possible to observe atomic structures in human bodies, and if we stuck with reducible theories, then it would possible to predict characteristics of human beings by knowing how all atoms, with all their properties, would react to each other and we could predict the properties of living beings. Doesn’t happen that way !
N2 + H2 = NH3 è this gives off a gas soluble in water. It has a pungent smell.
Mechanistic model with an eye on chemicals would miss the properties of the resultant gas, but the emergent theory would account for it. This leads us to surmise that mechanistic theory is OK for certain kind of usage but emergent theory has more specific and broader usage. |
