I doubt he would have been deemed to be insane in a court of law at the time for a belief held by so many (e.g., a belief in devils or specific hatreds of ethnic groups).
No. But he would definitely be exonerated in a court of law in our time, for an act committed while hallucinating, especially when it was proven to be a chronic condition over a long period of time, and connected with depression, mania, and other symptoms...and by comparison to his peers, brought forward in time, as a control group, that did not have these symptoms.
I used the term mental illness because it is softer and has less connotations. Even mere depression is mental illness, and he had plenty of that.
No, it is not the belief in devils; rather, it is the hallucinations. Even if you believe in the existence of demons (many people today do)--it is different than seeing them in your room and fighting with them physically. Seeing things that are not there (hallucinations); Seeing motives that are not there (paranoia)--these are not explained away by a peasant mentality or such solipsism's. These are part of the brain's wiring.
If archaeologists and other researchers determine that an historical figure had (say) cancer of the lungs, we don't rush to the defence saying it wasn't understood in those days. It was still cancer of the lungs. Cancer of the brain is cancer of the brain, regardless of the century. Hallucinations, depression, mania, paranoia, psychotic fighting with an imaginary opponent--these are mental illnesses regardless of the age. These are not moral faults, nor are they marks of disgrace or shame. Suspicions of mental disorders are not insults or attacks. I'm certainly not taking a unique position here.
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It is unfortunate and regrettable, that, even today, mental illness has connotations of evil and demons, especially on an unexamined level. We do anything to avoid the ignominy of mental illness, but in reality, most people have had temporary mental illnesses just as we have had physical maladies. In my opinion, neither one are caused by demons, and neither one deserves opprobrium or shame. Many of our great heroes, indeed had chronic mental illness. Abraham Lincoln is a well known example. This did not prevent his being a bright light to humanity.
Even today, psychiatry is careful to exclude religious experience from their definitions of mental illness. This is a testament to the pervasive power of the church in our society, as well as the significance that religion has, and holds, in our culture. In spite of this concession, they spend a lot of their time treating illnesses that are replete with religious themes of various forms of demon possession and struggles with demons. Paranoid Schizophrenia is the more modern term for the malady most commonly associated with these particular kinds of visions. The terror of demons still seems to reside in our genetic component of memory. When people are weakened by stress or chemical imbalances, or grief, or a thousand other ways...and when this frailty causes fear, there is one terror, even now, that is likely to come to the forefront: the terror of death, and the ultimate representative of eternal darkness---the Prince of Darkness, SATAN.
In biblical times, the peasants were also much enamoured of a demonistic world view, but the ones that actually got demons, and struggled with demons, and had hallucinations, and heard voices...were probably not much different than the ratio of modern times. Nowadays we treat these things with thorazine, or chlorpromazine, or alcoholism (alcoholism, however, is used to treat almost any form of discontent, which makes it the treatment choice of millions).
Many cultures have had supernatural beliefs. In the time of Luther there was much belief in the reality of good and evil forces--as there is today. But then as now, the succubus only visited lonely men.
Luther did live in superstitious times. This is not remarkable. Unfortunately, this happenstance has been the out for many of his followers to try to exlain some of his bizare behaviors. I think this is being extremely unfair to Martin Luther. The people around him were not experiencing what he was experiencing, and they did not have to endure and repeatedly overcome, what Martin Luther had to endure and repeatedly overcome. It is unfair not to acknowlege his struggle.
The idea that Luther suffered mental illness is not a singular one. Most writers (even devout followers) acknowledge it, if only in an oblique way. The question is to what kind and degree. There is a book written by Erik Erikson called: Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. I have not read this psychiatric evaluation of Luther, his life, and his times. I would love to hear from anyone that has. He was a fascinating man. It was not everyone that could stand before the Catholic Church, in opposition, and live. I will say this jokingly: That, in itself, is a maniacal act of insanity. :)
I do take your point about the importance of environment and context, in trying to develop reasonable opinions about historical matters. We don't, for instance, call the Incas insane for killing young girls as sacrifices. To them it was sensible behaviour. On the other hand, to suggest that reasonable assumptions cannot be put forth in historical matters is to be overly cautious and discreet. The difference in the case of Luther was that his manner of experiencing reality was one that he tried desperately to alleviate and was unable to. This was not something that everyone else was experiencing as part of their environment or culture. His was a state of lifelong mental distress, alternating between depression and periods of mania. He did not choose or want these things, no more than someone wants to have problems with their rotator cuffs. Bipolar disorder is not something that goes in and out of style depending on morals or social norms. This agony that he endured was not environmental or cultural. It wasn't being experienced by his society in general. It was HIS private agony and despair. If it was similar to his peers, it would not be remarkable. But his peers did not suffer with these agonies (well, perhaps 1 %, as in our own culture). He dealt with this mental agony in ways that were no different then, than they are today. When one must endure this kind of mental distress and sleepless nights, because of demon visitations, it is simply not fair to their suffering, and their strength, and their memory...not to acknowledge that struggle.
A little bit about wiring:
"Mental Illness is no myth
By Tom Siegfried and Sue Goetinck
Mental illness is no myth.
It is a medical malady no less than heart disease or diabetes. It's as real as cancer and much more common. It strikes the young and the old, the right and the poor - some sort of mental disorder afflicts more than one in five Americans in the course of a lifetime.
It goes by many names - schizophrenia, major depression, bipolar disorder are just a few. Such labels reflect distinct illnesses but also conceal many common features. For "mental" illnesses are all, at root, disorders of thought or emotion, stemming from physical problems - the biological equivalent of faulty wiring - in the brain.
100 billion cells
To be sure, the wiring of the brain is more complicated than an ordinary electrical circuit or even a micro-computer chip. The mind's method of interoffice messaging includes both chemical and electrical signals. Each nerve cell has communication links too thousands of others, and any one cell is simultaneously a part of many different signaling circuits. Tracing all the connections of even one cell is a task too complex to imagine, and the human brain contains 100 billion such cells.
"Understanding the normal function of the human brain - and what goes wrong in the production of serious mental illness - may be the most difficult and complex activity that human beings have ever undertaken," says Steven Hyman, director of the National Institute of Mental Health.
Biology gone bad
Still, science has made substantial progress in the last half-century. Before the 1950s, mental illness was not a part of mainstream medicine. Now volumes of evidence attest to the way the biology of the brain goes awry in mental disorders. The chemistry at nerve cell junctions, the metabolism in different brain regions and subtle anatomical anomalies all point to mental illness as biology gone bad.
In some cases, the miswiring may begin even before birth, as nerve cells fail to find their proper place in fetal development. In other cases, chemical malfunctions may short-circuit initially normal nerve cell wiring. Since genes produce the chemicals, they are strongly implicated in most major mental disorders, but outside influences are no doubt at work as well. Traumatic experiences at an early age may predispose a child to depression later in life, for example.
Sorting out the ways the brain's biology goes bad is almost as complex as the brain itself. The American Psychiatric Association's 900-page diagnostic manual lists hundreds of "mental disorders," ranging from schizophrenia to insomnia. But most experts agree on a few "major mental illnesses" that seriously impair the thoughts, feelings or behavior of millions of Americans. For the most part the major disorders fall into three broad categories: schizophrenia and related disorders, mood disorders such as major depression and bipolar disorder (manic depression), and anxiety disorders including obsessive compulsive disorder and panic disorder.
Schizophrenia
Commonly - but incorrectly - thought of as split personality, schizophrenia is a serious and complicated disorder. The "split" is a disconnection between the mind and reality. Schizophrenia is recognized in cultures around the world, and it seems to strike roughly one percent of the population just about anywhere.
"It's a terrible disease and a major public health problem," says William Carpenter, director of the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center.
Victims of schizophrenia suffer serious psychotic symptoms: delusions (such as false fears of persecution) and hallucinations (such as hearing voices). Disordered thoughts, incoherent speech, social withdrawal and inability to pay attention are common features among schizophrenia's victims. Not all patients exhibit all symptoms, and many experts believe "schizophrenia" is an umbrella label for a whole set of diseases. In any event, schizophrenia is not a simple, single defect, but a disorder affecting more than one part of the brain.
"We think that different parts of the brain may be involved in different aspects of the illness," says Carol Tamminga, a schizophrenia researcher at the University of Maryland.
Until the discovery in the 1950s of drugs that treat it, schizophrenia remained essentially outside the realm of biology and medicine.
"Very few people took the idea that schizophrenia was a biological illness very seriously until it was discovered that this illness could respond dramatically to drugs," says John Csermansky of Washington University in St. Louis.
Still, the physical problems were not obvious. Only in recent years have modern technologies begun to isolate some critical, if slight, abnormalities in the brain.
"Whatever the anatomical change in schizophrenia, it's a very small one," says Daniel Weinberger of the NIMH. "This is not a stroke...this is not a massive failure of brain development - this is a subtle, subtle defect."
Among the best tools for identifying subtle brain flaws are brain scanners, able to create images showing fine points of brain anatomy or the flow of blood in different brain regions. Modern brain scans have shown that when one of two identical twins has schizophrenia, brain cavities call ventricles are slightly smaller in the normal twin.
Another difference has been found by Nancy Andreasen of the University of Iowa and colleagues. Their imaging studies show that the thalamus, a control center for routing signals to and from various parts of the brain, is smaller than normal in the brains of schizophrenia patients. A malfunctioning thalamus could contribute to the unfiltered flood of sensory stimulation that schizophrenia patients experience in hallucinations and delusions.
Dramatic new evidence of the inner workings of a brain with schizophrenia was published last November in the journal "Nature" by scientists in England and Cornell Medical Center in New York City. Their scans showed several brain regions to be highly active during hallucinations. False voices activated parts of the brain normally used in understanding speech; visual hallucinations in one of the patients showed activity in brain regions specialized for visual perception.
Brain scans also show that the schizophrenic brain doesn't perform thinking tasks as well as, or in the same way as, normal brains. During some complicated thinking tasks, such as sorting cards containing different symbols, the frontal cortex works harder in normal brains and the areas around the hippocampus in the temporal lobe work less. The pattern in schizophrenia patients is the opposite.
In other mental tasks, involving recognition of sounds, the frontal parts of the brain are underactive in schizophrenia patients, said Tamminga. Another region of the brain normally activated by such tasks - the cingulate cortex - is also active in schizophrenia patients, but at the wrong time in the course of the task. The cingulate cortex, part of the emotion-related limbic system, is believed to play an important role in the brain's ability to pay attention to stimuli.
Other schizophreniza-related anatomical differences suggesting a developmental problem have been detected in the planum temporale, a brain area involved in generating and understanding language. That region is normally larger on the left side of the brain than the right in right-hand people, but in schizophrenia patients the right side was larger, researchers from John Hopkins University School of Medicine reported last year in the "American Journal of Psychiatry."
Mood disorders
Mood disorders are much more common. Major depression affects about 5 percent of the population at any one time, and over the course of a lifetime 17 percent of the population experiences a major depressive episode, a 1994 study published in the "American Journal of Psychiatry" found.
"Major depression is a general category that probably includes several types of illness," says Wayne Drevets, a psychiatrist at Washington University in St. Louis. "There's a lot about depression we just don't know."
In about 1 percent of the population, depressive episodes alternate with a euphoric mood known as mania, marked by feelings of grandiosity or irritability. Popularly known as manic depression, this cycling between highs and lows is technically labeled bipolar disorder, reflecting its two extremes of mood. Recently psychiatrists have recognized a bipolar type 2, in which the manic state is not as extreme as in full-scale manic depression.
Clues to the biology of mood disorders have stemmed mainly from the drugs used to treat them. Manic depression is most commonly treated with compounds containing the element lithium. Most drugs for major depression affect the brain chemicals serotonin or norepinephrine.
Prozac, for example, attacks depression by blocking the molecules that clean serotonin out of the nerve cell connections known as synapses. That leaves more serotonin around, leading ultimately to an improved mood.
But the delay in the beneficial effects of Prozac and similar drugs - they can take a couple of weeks to work - suggests that depression is more complicated than merely a lack of serotonin in synapses.
Manic depression is even more difficult to understand. The evidence suggests that lithium operates inside the cell, perhaps affecting the internal cell molecules called G proteins. G proteins are key players in the cellular messaging systems that tell genes what chemicals to produce.
Drevets and colleagues have shown, for example, that depressed patients have abnormally high blood flow in the amygdala, a brain region important for emotional behavior.
Anxiety disorders
Major depression often accompanies another major group of mental illness, the anxiety disorder, among which the most prominent are panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
In panic disorder, more than half the victims also suffer from major depression. Panic disorder itself is marked by recurring panic attacks - episodes of intense fear or terror accompanied by shortness of breath, chest pain or choking sensations. Panic disorder is not rare; worldwide studies estimate that 1.5 to 3.5 percent of the population can be affected over a lifetime.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD, is marked by recurring concerns or doubts that intrude on normal life, or repetitive actions (compulsions) such as washing hands over and over again.
Not much is known about the causes of OCD, said Gerry Nestadt, a psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins Medical School.
There is evidence suggesting that in some cases of OCD, infection with the bacteria "Streptococcus" may be a contributing cause. Likewise, sometimes people with Huntington's disease or people that suffer a stroke or other brain injury can develop OCD symptoms. Use of certain drugs, such as amphetamines, can also lead to OCD, Nestadt said.
"What's going to help patients," said Pearlson of Johns Hopkins, "is integrating a lot of information from a lot of different areas of science."
This article may be found on the Web at pendulum.org
Mental illness: The numbers
Prevalence
*Schizophrenia: About 1% of the population
*Major depression: Lifetime occurrence - 10% - 25% of women, 5% - 12% of men.
*Bipolar disorder (manic depression): Lifetime occurrence - 1% - 2% of the population.
*Panic Disorder: Lifetime occurrence - about 1% of males, 2% of females.
*Obsessive-compulsive disorders: Lifetime occurrence - about 2.5% of the population.
Cost
Mental disorders, other than alcohol and substance abuse, cost U.S. society more than $150 billion annually, according to the National Institute of Mental Health. About $67 billion of that amount (based on 1990 figures) is for direct health care costs; the rest includes social services, disability payments and the expense of lost productivity.
Estimates for the annual costs of some specific mental disorders:
*Major depression: $43.7 billion
*Anxiety disorders: $46.6 billion
*Schizophrenia: $30 billion |
