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China (Chinese Academy of Sciences - SINAP)
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Xu Hongjie (Chief Scientist); Jiang Mianheng (Historical advocate)
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2 MW Thorium Molten Salt Experimental Reactor (TMSR-LF1) in Wuwei, Gobi Desert; 10 MW demonstration reactor under construction. Achieved full-power operation in June 2024 and first in-operation thorium refueling in Oct 2024. World's first operational thorium MSR.
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Operational prototype; demo reactor build starts 2025, operational by 2030. Massive reserves (1M+ tonnes discovered in Inner Mongolia).
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India (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre - BARC; Department of Atomic Energy)
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Ajit Kumar Mohanty (Secretary, DAE)
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Three-stage nuclear program: Stage III focuses on Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) using thorium-plutonium fuel; 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam breeds U-233 from thorium.
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PFBR core loading completed 2024, commissioning 2026; AHWR prototype targeted for 2030. World's largest thorium reserves (~846,000 tonnes). Plans for 22 GW nuclear capacity by 2032.
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United States (Historical: Oak Ridge National Lab; Modern: Department of Energy)
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Alvin Weinberg (Historical MSR pioneer); Kirk Sorensen (Modern advocate via Flibe)
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Original Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) in 1960s; current support for private ventures like Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE) testing ANEEL fuel at Idaho National Lab.
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CCTE achieved 45 GWd/t burnup milestone in Aug 2025. No national prototype, but DOE funds R&D; thorium seen as waste-burner for existing reactors.
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Canada (Canadian Nuclear Laboratories; AECL legacy)
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Steve West (CNL President)
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Thorium integration into CANDU reactors; partnerships with China for thorium-uranium fuels.
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Exploratory; Clean Core Thorium Energy (U.S.-based but Canadian ties) advances ANEEL fuel for PHWRs. Reserves: ~15,000 tonnes.
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Copenhagen Atomics
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Denmark
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Thomas Jam Pedersen (CEO/Co-founder)
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Compact thorium MSR (100 MW thermal/unit); burns spent fuel for 10x energy yield; mass-manufacturable like shipping containers.
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Third non-fission prototype under build; first nuclear chain reaction at Paul Scherrer Institute in 2027; mass production targeted 2028. Partnership with DeepGEO for waste management.
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Flibe Energy
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USA
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Kirk Sorensen (Founder/CEO)
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Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor (LFTR); thermal spectrum for high efficiency, low waste; sCO2 power cycle.
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R&D phase; prototypes in planning; advocates for thorium ecosystem including medical isotopes and desalination.
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Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE)
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USA (Chicago)
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James Kennedy (CEO); Pat Kennedy (Founder)
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ANEEL fuel (thorium + HALEU); "plug-and-play" for existing CANDU/PHWRs; reduces waste, boosts burnup.
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$15.5M funding in Feb 2025; 45 GWd/t milestone at INL in Aug 2025. MOU with Idaho Strategic Resources for thorium supply chain.
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ThorCon Power
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USA/Indonesia
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David LeBlanc (CTO)
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Sealed modular thorium-uranium MSR; low-cost for developing regions.
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500 MW plant partnership with Indonesia govt on Kelasa Island (announced Nov 2023); construction pending regulatory approval.
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TerraPower
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USA
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Chris Levesque (CEO); Bill Gates (Co-founder/Investor)
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Molten salt tech with thorium elements; integrates with Natrium fast reactor for isotope production.
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Advanced R&D; strong GE Hitachi partnerships; thorium as hybrid fuel option. No dedicated prototype yet.
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