1919 British appoint Kamil al-Husayni (the mufti of Jerusalem since 1908) as 1st Grand Mufti of Jerusalem (a British-invented title), extending his religious authority over all Muslims of Palestine; creates a new Muslim hierarchy to replace politics centred on Istanbul.
Jan: Versailles Peace Conference affirms that Arab provinces will not be restored to Ottoman rule.
4Jan: Paris Agreement between Chaim Weizmann & Faysal ibn Husayn (in effective power in Damascus) to set up a future regional federation to enable achievement of Zionist goals in Palestine. Faysal declares support for unrestricted Jewish immigration & a guaranteed Jewish enclave in an independent Arab State of “Syria” (which inc Lebanon, Transjordan, Palestine: “Greater Syria”). Supported by Jerusalem & Jaffa Muslim-Christian assocs.
27Jan-10Feb: 1st Palestine Congress convened in Jerusalem. Considers Palestine to be part of Syria, rejects Balfour Decl & demands Arab independence under Faysal. Assembly convenes 7 times between ’19 & ’28.
Mar: petition from 31 prominent American Jews (inc Henry Morgenthau and Adolph S. Ochs, the publisher of the New York Times) to President Woodrow Wilson, oppg the creation of a Jewish State in Palestine, on the grounds of its undemocratic nature.
9Mar: widespread national revolt begins in Egypt against British rule after nationalist leaders were arrested; suppressed, but leads to creation of nationalist party, the Wafd, under Sa‘d Zaghlul. British report on the revolt (publd Feb21) recommends terminating the Protectorate status of Egypt.
19May: Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), initially with permission of Allies for the restoring of order in Turkey, lands at Samsun with wide range of powers at his disposal. Instead, he begins organising nationalist forces to oppose the sultanate & the Allied occupation > creation of a provisional government, headed by Kemal & based in Ankara, through the National Pact of Jul19 = seen as the beginning of modern Turkish history.
23May: the beginning of the Kurdish revolt against the British, led by Shaykh Mahmud Berzendji of Sulaymaniyya, who proclaims an independent Kurdistan (Berzendji's revolt continues until 1931).
2July: 1st General Syrian Congress (which included prominent Palestinians, Transjordanians, Lebanese & Syrians) held in Damascus to formulate demands for the Inter-Allied Commission on Syria (the King-Crane Commission): supports the independence of an undivided Syria, & opposed to Zionism. Britain cedes authority over Syria to France after the congress finishes through the September 15 Accord: British troops evacuate from Oct-Nov19; Gen. Henri Gourand becomes High Commissioner. Britain & France agree to pay a monthly subsidy to Faysal's government: this is often withheld over political disputes, leading to a collapse of the Syrian economy. Faysal introduced conscription (Dec19; expanded in May&Jun20) - deeply unpopular, esp due to poor payment.
28Aug: Henry King and Charles Crane, the US members of the Inter-Allied Commission, estd by the Versailles Peace Conference, present their report based on their visit to the region in June-July; they make recommendations to Allies on the status of Syria, Iraq & Palestine; proposes limited Jewish emigration & giving up the idea of a distinct Jewish commonwealth in the region. Their report was kept secret until 1922, and was not fully published until 1947.
1920
Histadrut, the General Federation of Jewish Workers, is set up, with David Ben-Gurion (b.1886, Plonsk, Poland) as its Secretary-General. Remains exclusively Jewish until 1960s, when officially dropped ‘Jewish’ from its name (1966).
Jan: agreement between Faysal and President Clemenceau of France, confirming separate administrations in OETA East & West, in line with the September 15 Accord: seen as endorsing the division of Syria.
Feb: 2 Jewish settlements of Tel Hai & Metullah in N.Palestine are attacked; subsequently, after Nabi Musa festival (4-5Apr), anti-Jewish anti-British riots take place in Jerusalem & Jaffa (46 Jews killed) in support of Faysal. Creation of Haganah (“self-defence”) militia by Jews in response. British commission of inquiry attributes riots to Arab anxiety at Jewish immigration.
March: Faysal elected & crowned king of Greater Syria at 2nd General Syrian Congress in Damascus; assembly proclaims independence from France of Greater Syria; rejects Balfour Declaration & Sykes-Picot agreement.
Apr: With Allies’ cooperation, Mehmet VI dissolves the Ankara parliament (11Apr) & arrests leading nationalists, who in turn assemble a new parliament – the Grand National Assembly – in Ankara (23Apr). Nationalists, led by Kazim Karabekir, were successfully fighting off external invaders, defeating Armenians (Nov20) & regaining Eastern provinces from the Soviet Union (Mar21), & were slowing the Greek advance on Ankara > increasing international acceptance of the Ankara government.
25Apr: San Remo Peace Conference of Allied Powers endorses the French & British mandate over the Levant, with Britain holding the mandate in Palestine, Transjordan & Mesopotamia (renamed Iraq, created out of the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad & Mosul); Syria & Lebanon to France, plus a 25% share in the proceeds of Iraqi oil.
May: 2nd Palestinian Congress is prevented from convening by the British.
June: After Arnold Wilson, the High Commissioner to Iraq, refuses to allow any degree of self-government, an extensive revolt begins, especially among the mid-Euphrates tribes (most Sunni tribes did not take part). Backed by Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi al-Shirazi, the leading Shi'i mujtahid in Iraq, associated with the Independence Guard (Haras al-Istiqlal, estd 1919), a society calling for independence under Hashimite rule with predominantly Shi'i membership. 1/3rd of country in rebellion, with rebels controlling Najaf and Karbala. In Baghdad, Sunnis and Shi'is participate in joint demonstrations, after Ja‘far Abu al-Timman brokered their collaboration. Extensive use of UK air power; between 6000 & 9000 Iraqis killed, 426 British. Wilson replaced by Percy Cox who takes a more conciliatory stance.
1July: Herbert Samuel installed as first High Commissioner to Palestine: civilian administration begins. Jewish emigration had been declining: Samuel sets annual quota of 16,500 per year, but ensures that 3rd Ascent (1919-23) brought 20,000 predominantly socialist Jews; 4th Ascent (1924-8) 33,000, largely from Poland & Russia, due to repressive policies of those governments rather than zeal of Zionism. 1931 census shows that Jewish population had more than tripled in 13 years, growing to 175,000 (but still cf 760,000 Muslims, 91,000 Christians). Jewry favours continued British presence in Palestine so as to allow emigration to continue.
24Jul: French forces led by Gourand retake Damascus by force, after their ultimatum 10 days before was ignored; British support. Britain arrests Palestinian notables who had supported Faysal; Hajj Amin al-Husayni (b.1897; half-brother of Kamil al-Husayni), who had supported Faysal in Damascus, flees Palestine shortly after his return; Musa Kazim al-Husayni, mayor of Jerusalem, is replaced by Raghib al-Nashashibi (Apr; deepened & centralised fissure between Husaynis & Nashashibis).
Aug: To diminish the possibility of another uprising in Syria, France reorganises the territories under its mandate: the former Christian-dominated autonomous province of Lebanon, previously in Mt Lebanon region, is expanded to include Beirut & Tripoli, & so brings a larger productive base to Christians but reduces their proportion within the State; this becomes known (until 1926) as “Greater Lebanon” (proclaimed by Gourand on 1Sept), & these remain the borders of modern Lebanon. Syria is made up (after some reorganisation in 1925, when Aleppo & Damascus are reunited) of the districts of Damascus, Aleppo and Dayr al-Zawr; & separate governments for ‘Alawite territory (based around Latakia: Jabal Ansariyya) & Jabal al-Druze (based around Suweida). These later territories are joined to Syria in 1936.
10Aug: Treaty of Sèvres signed by Mehmet VI, accepting the Allies’ terms of the San Remo conference. The Ottoman Empire is dissolved, and Turkey has to abandon its claims to the Arab world. An independent Armenia & autonomous Kurdistan are envisioned. Was rejected by nationalists, who now held considerable authority over much of Turkey = Treaty had to be renegotiated in 1922-3, to form the Treaty of Lausanne which replaced the Treaty of Sèvres.
Nov: First Iraqi government formed, with ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Kaylani as prime minister of an appointed council of ministers working under British supervision.
13-19Dec: 3rd Palestinian Congress in Haifa, composed of Muslim-Christian Associations delegates: stresses autonomy of Palestinian Arabs in Palestine, which is a distinct political entity (leaves unmentioned the earlier proposals for Greater Syria); nominates the Arab Executive Committee (AEC), installing the former mayor of Jerusalem Musa Kazim al-Husayni as leader, & Arif al-Dajani as deputy leader. Congress also demands a halt to Jewish immigration & land acquisition.
1921
22Feb: Reza Khan, a military commander, seizes power in Persia with the country in the grip of an economic crisis and famine; made PM in 1923.
Mar: To dissuade ‘Abdullah, son of Sharif Husayn, from attempting to march on Damascus in support of Faysal, and to head off the revolt in Iraq, Colonial Secretary Churchill of Britain convenes the Cairo conference of Middle East experts to determine how to rule the mandatory territories: separates off Transjordan from Palestine, turning the former into an Emirate for ‘Abdullah to rule over, for a trial six-month period (inaugurated in Apr21); British indicated to ‘Abdullah that responsible rule in Transjordan would encourage them to press for him to be installed as Emir in Damascus too. Churchill offers Iraq to Faysal, where he is made king (23Aug21) of a constitutional monarchy, with ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Kaylani (the naqib of Baghdad) as his first prime minister (Sept21-Nov22). Every Iraqi minister has a British "adviser", whose approval is required for decisions. Also a reduction in the British garrison in Iraq, replaced by air force squadrons. Faysal overwhelmingly appoints Sunni ex-Ottoman officers, especially those who had rallied to Sharif Husayn in 1916 (the "ex-Sharifians", of whom there were about 300, many of whom had been members of al-‘Ahd), largely from Baghdad and its north hinterland, as cabinet members, provincial governors (mutassarif), district administrators (qa’imaqam): these are largely of middle or lower middle class origin. The only exceptions were a Jewish minister of finance and a Shi‘a minister of education. British census of 1920 had found 56% of population to be Shi‘a. Nuri al-Sa‘id, an ex-Sharifian, becomes the leading ally of Faysal from 1924, when he was put in charge of the army; he is appointed PM in Mar30 - a position he holds repeatedly up until 1958, and is a firm British ally. Nuri himself promoted ex-Sharifians extensively: most senior appointments in the army and cabinet (5 out of 6 in 1930 cabinet) are from this group. Other prominent ex-Sharifians who later become PM include Ja‘far al-‘Askari (PM from Nov23-Aug24, Nov26-Jan28), Jamil al-Midfa‘i (much of period 1933-38; again in 1941 and 1953) and ‘Ali Jawdat al-Ayyubi (Aug34-Feb35; again in Dec49-Feb50 and in 1957).
Mar: Kamil al-Husayni dies; his half-brother, Hajj Amin al-Husayni is appointed new Mufti of Jerusalem (10May) after being pardoned by Samuel.
|
