Of course there is the REAL story Kenneth ignores.
Taking Jim Crow out of uniform: A. Philip Randolph and the desegregation of the U.S. military - Special Report: The Integrated Military - 50 Years Black Issues in Higher Education, August 21, 1997 by Karin Chenoweth
Nearly fifty years ago, during his reelection campaign, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 ordering the "equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services."
In the years since, the military has gone from being viciously segregated to being widely regarded as the best integrated institution in the United States. As a result, Truman's decision to integrate the army has become, arguably, one of the most important decisions of his presidency.
And yet why he made the decision is not entirely clear. His opponent, Republican Thomas Dewey, had not made civil rights a particularly key issue in his campaign. Socialist Party candidate Norman Thomas and Progressive Party candidate Henry Wallace had, but they could be dismissed as fringe candidates.
In his 1994 book Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South, John Egerton analyzed the situation as follows:
" was accused of playing politics on the military desegregation order - and as far as his timing was concerned, there can be little doubt that he acted with an eye on the campaign. But who saw any political advantage in taking the initiative on such a controversial issue? A 1946 national opinion survey had found that two-thirds of all [W]hite Americans believed [B]lacks were already being treated fairly in the society at large. Congress passed a new Selective Service Act in June 1948 that left segregation in place, and Truman signed it into law. Southerners in both houses were fighting tooth and nail against any modification in the racial rules of the armed forces, and most of the military top brass were also dragging their feet on the issue. Just about the only person pressing Truman to take action was A. Philip Randolph - a forceful and persuasive man, to be sure, but not one who wielded great power. Some of the President's advisers did see political capital to be made from a liberal stance on race, but prudence might have led them to suggest waiting until after the election to take Jim Crow out of uniform."
Egerton goes on to say that Truman agreed entirely with the substance of desegregating the military, but for "a man who was looking like a double-digit loser in the polls, it was a bold decision."
Egerton dismisses the efforts of Randolph. Nevertheless, a case can be made that Randolph's efforts played a significant role in Truman's decision - particularly after considering Randolph's influence with President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Randolph, the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, had been instrumental in convincing Roosevelt to integrate the federal workforce in 1941. To bring political pressure on Roosevelt, Randolph began organizing a March on Washington Movement and threatened to bring 100,000 African Americans to the nation's capital.
Frightened by the thought of such an unprecedented demonstration, Roosevelt ordered Joseph L. Rauh, then a young assistant in the Office of Emergency Management, to draft an executive order which would satisfy Randolph. After writing several drafts which Randolph rejected as not being strong enough, Rauh questioned his superiors, "What the hell has he got over the President of the United States?"
Finally, Rauh submitted a version which pleased Randolph and six days before the march was to take place, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, which permitted African Americans to fill the lucrative jobs that were opening up in preparation for World War II.
That executive order did not change segregation in the armed forces, however. Given the political situation of the time - preparing for World War II - Randolph had decided not to push for military desegregation and called off the march. He would later revisit the concept of peaceful mass demonstration in 1963 when he led the March on Washington which featured Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.
Randolph would get his opportunity to push for military desegregation after the United States won World War II with the enthusiastic and important participation by African American troops. When Truman called for a peacetime draft in 1948, Randolph - along with Grant Reynolds, Commissioner of Corrections for New York State - founded the Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service and Training. With the help of a young pacifist named Bayard Rustin, the committee began a civil disobedience campaign against the segregated military.
On March 22, Truman invited a group of Black leaders to the White House to discuss the subject of an executive order. Among them were: Randolph; Walter White, executive secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Mary McLeod Bethune, the noted civil rights activist and educator; and Charles Houston, a special counsel for the NAACP.
The following description of the meeting comes from A. Philip Randolph: A Biographical Portrait:
"As Randolph remembers, the meeting had been proceeding smoothly and amicably, until he said to Truman, 'Mr. President, after making several trips around the country, I can tell you that the mood among Negroes of this country is that they will never bear arms again until all forms of bias and discrimination are abolished.'
"In a battle of bluntness Harry Truman came out second to no man, and he told Randolph, 'I wish you hadn't made that statement. I don't like it at all.'
"Charles Houston intervened: 'But Mr. President, don't you want to know what is happening in the country?' Truman said he certainly wanted to know what was happening in the country; a president attracted more than enough yes men.
"'Well, that's what I'm giving you, Mr. President,' Randolph said, seizing the advantage before it disappeared again. 'I'm giving you the facts.' When the President allowed him to proceed, Randolph ran headlong into Truman again: 'Mr. President, as you know, we are calling upon you to issue an executive order abolishing segregation in the armed forces.' At this point, Truman simply thanked his visitors for coming, and said there didn't seem to be much more that they could talk fruitfully about.
"But Truman's rebuff merely aroused Randolph's defiance. Testifying, nine days later, during hearings on the universal military training bill, Randolph told the Senate Armed Services Committee:
"'This time Negroes will not take a Jim Crow draft lying down. The conscience of the world will be shaken as by nothing else when thousands and thousands of us second-class Americans choose imprisonment in preference to permanent military slavery...I personally will advise Negroes to refuse to fight as slaves for a democracy they cannot possess and cannot enjoy.'"
Randolph was not supported in his campaign against a segregated military by many establishment voices. The Amsterdam News, one of the nation's most widely read Black newspapers, wrote an editorial condemning Randolph. However, a poll of young Black men showed that 71 percent favored a civil disobedience campaign against the draft - a striking poll, given the history of participation in the military by African Americans.
And words were being joined by actions. In one of the best-known cases, Winfrid Lynn, a Long Island landscape gardener, told his draft board that while he was "ready to serve in any unit of the armed forces of my country which is not segregated by race," he would "not be compelled to serve in a unit undemocratically selected as a Negro group." He went to jail.
At the 1948 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia - where the young mayor of Minneapolis, named Hubert H. Humphrey, led a fight against the Southern segregationists known as Dixiecrats - scores of African Americans - led by Randolph - picketed the convention hall. Less than a month later, Truman signed the executive order.
After the order was signed, Randolph sent Truman a telegram praising the president for his "high order of statesmanship and courage." With that, the civil disobedience campaign officially came to an end.
It is difficult to say whether Randolph's campaign was a key factor in Truman's decision - the new biography of Truman by David McCullough does not discuss it. But the fact is, it was one of the few organized public expressions of moral revulsion against segregation at the time. And it was one of the forerunners to later battles against segregation in the 1950s and 1960s.
COPYRIGHT 1997 Cox, Matthews & Associates COPYRIGHT 2004 Gale Group
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